Short Learning Progamme: Part 2 - Advanced Information Literacy: Unit 6: Referencing and citing sources

Rule 1: Include relevant citations

• When you write an academic paper, it's important to show why your questions matter, explain the methods you used, justify the materials you relied on, and discuss relevant issues.
• One way to do this is by citing previous work that is related to your topic. Not including these references can make it seem like your ideas, questions, methods, or criticisms are original, when they're actually borrowed from others.
• Citations let people know where your ideas came from, and readers can check out those sources to learn more and see if you used them correctly.
• Embracing proper citation practices will help you maintain academic integrity, avoid plagiarism, and enhance the credibility of your work.

Rule 2: Read the publications you cite

• When you use citations in your paper, you can mention one paper for different reasons, like using its data or methods. You can cite a paper in a positive or negative way, depending on how it relates to your work.
• Here's the important part: To make sure a paper is relevant to your argument, you have to read it fully. That way, you can understand if it really supports what you're saying.
• Also, the number of citations you use in your work affects its credibility. When you include citations that support your points or criticise other ideas, it's like building a chain. But remember, the strength of the chain depends on the quality of the publications you cite.
• Some people might think that the more a paper is cited, the better its research quality. But that's not always true. The number of citations can include both positive and negative ones, and it doesn't tell you if the paper is reliable or challenged. So, it's better to focus on the actual content of a publication rather than just how many times it has been cited when deciding to use it as a source. That's how you can cite meaningfully and make your work credible.

Rule 3: Cite in accordance with content

• When you decide to include a specific study in your research, you need to think carefully about how and where to cite it. Just mentioning the source is not enough; you must give credit for the exact ideas or data it contributes.
• This might mean you'll have to mention the same source multiple times in your work to explain its importance. It's essential to be clear about why you're citing it each time.
• Now, there's something called a 'Trojan citation.' This happens when you mention a study that has similar findings to yours, but you only talk about a small, unimportant part of it. By doing this, you hide the significant contribution that study made, and it may make your work seem more original than it actually is.
• People sometimes use Trojan citations to follow the requests of reviewers or editors, including a reference that seems relevant but doesn't add much value. It can also happen by mistake when you don't know the full content of the source or when there are disagreements among scientists about its contribution or quality.
• To avoid these issues, always be clear about why you're citing a source, and make sure you understand what it truly contributes to your research. That way, your citations will be meaningful and add credibility to your work.

Rule 4: Cite transparently, not neutrally

• When you cite something in your work, it's important to provide context, especially when it's part of your argument. Not all citations are used to support your main points; some are just references to data, resources, or established methods, and they may not need much explanation.
• But when you use a citation as part of your argument, simply including it in the right place is not enough. You need to explain why that reference is valuable and why you included it in your work. Providing this context helps your readers understand the significance of the source you're citing and the reason behind using it in your argument. So, remember to give enough context whenever you use citations to support your main points.

Rule 5: Cite yourself when required

• When you're discussing citations and how they are measured, people often see citing yourself as something not to do. But it's essential to understand that self-citation can actually be helpful. It shows how your work builds upon your previous research, like taking small steps forward.
• So, when it makes sense in your writing, you should cite your own previous work or the work of your research group following the same rules as when you cite other people's work.
• However, there is a limit to self-citation. Using it too much can be a problem. It might make it seem like you're dividing one study into many smaller parts just to increase your publication and citation numbers, which is not a good practice.
• The amount of self-citation that is considered acceptable can vary between different fields of study. Smaller or specialized fields might have more self-citations, and that's okay as long as it's done for legitimate reasons.
• So, remember, self-citation can be useful, but don't overdo it, and always follow the rules for citing properly.

Rule 6: Prioritise the citations you include

Prioritisng citations are essential to ensure that your academic work is well-supported and focused on the most relevant and impactful sources. Here are five tips to help you prioritize citations effectively:

1. Relevance to your Argument:
The most important criterion for prioritising citations is their relevance to your argument or research question. Ask yourself whether a particular source directly contributes to supporting your main points or strengthens your argument. Focus on citing sources that provide valuable insights and evidence related to the specific topic or theme you are addressing.

1. Focus on what's relevant: Choose sources that directly support your main points and relate to your topic.

2. Use up-to-date sources: Include recent research to show you're aware of the latest findings in your field.

3. Cite credible works: Pick sources from respected authors or reputable journals to boost the reliability of your research.

4. Use in-depth and varied sources: Select comprehensive studies and include different perspectives to strengthen your argument.

5. Address counterarguments: Include sources that discuss opposing views to show you've considered different sides of the topic.

Rule 7: Evaluate citations as choices

• Research papers are more than just collections of data. They tell a story, explaining why certain questions are important, what the answers mean, and how they were found. The authors carefully choose which other studies to link to in order to support their narrative.
• On the other side, readers evaluate the story and consider if it could have been told differently. Different citations and references can support alternative narratives. However, this doesn't mean the original story is wrong. The choice of citations is a deliberate decision made by the authors to make their argument as strong and convincing as possible. They tailor their choices to their intended audience, usually their fellow researchers.
• Deciding which references to include or exclude can only be understood within the context of the overall story and its purpose. It's all part of the authors' strategy to build a powerful, credible, and persuasive argument.

Rule 8: Evaluate citations in their rhetorical context

• When we write research papers, we use different strategies to convince and persuade our readers.
• Narratives, metaphors, numbers, and associations are some of the tools we use to make our points. Scientific articles have developed over time to incorporate these strategies and convince readers that the author's ideas are right. 
• Citations play a role in the social fabric of science. By citing specific sources, authors show their connection to different schools of thought, communities, or specific scientific debates. Citations can also appeal to authority by referencing notable figures and their work. Long lists of citations can indicate that a topic has been extensively studied.
• Let's consider an example: If authors say a field has been well-studied and provide three references (X, Y, and Z) to support their claim, they are emphasising the existing knowledge in that field. On the other hand, if they argue that a field is understudied but mention three exceptions (X, Y, and Z), they are highlighting rare instances where research has been done. To understand the value placed on references X, Y, and Z in a specific text, you need to assess the author's rhetorical strategies.
• In simpler terms, citations serve different purposes in our papers, such as showing support for our claims, aligning with certain ideas or communities, appealing to authority, or indicating the extent of research in a field. By understanding these purposes, we can better evaluate the role and significance of citations in the context of a specific text.

Rule 9: Evaluate citations as frame communication

• Authors use words to achieve specific goals and present their work and the work of others in a certain way. This presentation is called "framing," and it helps support their arguments. Framing involves positioning references in a particular manner, like considering X, Y, and Z as the norm or as exceptions.
• It's crucial to recognise that framing gives meaning to references like X, Y, and Z in a text. Every message and text has a "frame," which is a structure of definitions and assumptions that help make sense of the content and create a perspective on reality.
• When we cite an article (let's call it A) in another article (let's call it B), we are not just drawing a neutral line between them. The meaning of article A depends on how it's framed in the context of the citation in article B. For example, it can be seen as innovative in B or dogmatic in another article C. Framing is not about lying or deceiving; it's about positioning evidence in a certain context.
• This has an important consequence: simply counting how many times article A is cited doesn't tell us its true value to the scientific community. To understand that, we need to consider the context, the way it's framed, and how it contributes to the ongoing discussions in the field.

Rule 10: Accept that citation cultures differ across boundaries

• Citations work like a universal currency and might differ from discipline to discipline. How they are used can vary a lot depending on where you are or which field you're in. Each laboratory, department, or discipline might have its own way of using citations.
• Different academic fields have different citation practices. The average number of citations in a research paper can be different between disciplines. Also, how citations are mentioned in the text and their perceived value can be very different.
• For example, in molecular biology, it's common to include multiple references after a statement, but in research ethics or science policy, just one reference might need a lot more explanation. So, what's considered good citation practice in one field may not be acceptable in another.
• When you read a paper from a different field, it's essential to understand and respect their citation norms. And if a scientist from another discipline cites your work, remember that their way of citing may be influenced by their specific citation culture.
• In short, even though citations are a universal currency in science, their actual use can differ significantly depending on the specific local practices or disciplines involved. It's crucial to be aware of and respect these differences when reading or citing research from different fields.

(Source: Penders, B. (2018). Ten simple rules for responsible referencing. PLoS Comput Biol, 14(4):e1006036. Available from https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1006036)

Citation pollution

"Citation pollution" happens when citations are used wrongly or excessively in academic papers. Here are some examples:

1. Using too many citations without a clear reason or proper context can confuse readers.

2. Some writers add citations just to meet a minimum requirement, even if they don't add value to their work.

3. Using citations from unreliable sources can make the paper less trustworthy.

4. Including references that have nothing to do with the main topic can distract readers.

5. Misquoting or misrepresenting the content of a cited source can lead to mistakes.

6. Using too many self-citations without a good reason can look like self-promotion.

7. Relying on outdated sources can make the paper less relevant.

8. Plagiarism, which means using someone else's work without giving credit, is a serious form of citation pollution.

To avoid citation pollution, make sure your citations are relevant, accurate, and used in the right context. Use them wisely to support your ideas and strengthen your paper's quality. By doing so, your work will be more credible and respected in the academic community.

(Source: Hinchliffe, L. J. & Clarke, M. (2019, September 25). Fighting citation pollution - the challenge of detecting fraudulent journals in works cited. Scholarly Kitchen. Available from https://scholarlykitchen.sspnet.org/2019/09/25/fighting-citation-pollution/)

Citation contamination

"Citation contamination" happens when wrong information spreads in academic papers. It starts with one mistake in a citation, and then other researchers unknowingly repeat the error in their own work.

Examples of citation contamination include:

1. Misinterpreting data: Researchers cite a study's findings incorrectly, and others repeat the mistake in their papers.

2. Typos: Sometimes, a citation has a small mistake in writing, and then it gets copied in other papers without being checked.

3. Using quotes out of context: A quote is taken from a source but used in a way that changes its meaning. Then, others cite this misquote, making the error spread.

4. Wrongly giving credit: An idea is attributed to the wrong author or paper, and this mistake gets repeated in other research articles.

5. Citing retracted studies: Researchers cite a study that was withdrawn because of errors or misconduct, and others do the same, even though it's incorrect.

To prevent citation contamination, always check and verify the sources you use. Make sure the information is accurate before including it in your own work. Double-checking your citations and using reliable sources can help stop the spread of wrong information in academic papers.

(Source: Anderson, R. (2019, October 28). Citation contamination: references to predatory journals in the legitimate scientific literature. Scholarly Kitchen. Available from https://scholarlykitchen.sspnet.org/2019/10/28/citation-contamination-references-to-predatory-journals-in-the-legitimate-scientific-literature/)

Predatory journals

Predatory journals are publications that care more about making money than promoting good research. They ask authors to pay a lot of money to publish their papers, but they don't do proper peer review or make sure the research is reliable.

Here are some things to look out for:

1. They may send emails to researchers, trying to get them to publish with them.

2. They promise to publish papers quickly without proper review.

3. They may not be listed in reputable databases.

4. They might not be clear about their fees or how they review papers.

5. Some predatory journals lie about their importance to attract authors.

Examples of predatory journals are Journal of Biological Sciences, International Journal of Current Research, and others like Global Journal of Human-Social Science Research and International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR).

To avoid publishing in predatory journals, researchers should check the journal's reputation, editorial board, and previous publications. It's essential to choose reputable journals to ensure the quality and credibility of their research. Also consult the university's accredited journal list.

(Source: Elmore, S. A. & Weston, E. H. (2020). Predatory journals: what they are and how to avoid them. Toxicol Phatol, 48(4): 607-610. doi:10.1177/0192623320920209)